Crocodiles in India

                                         India is home to a wide variety of reptiles,and  is no lagging behind in the case of crocodiles also. India is home to 3 species of crocodiles, Mugger Crocodile (one in above picture), Salt water crocodile and Gharial. Mugger crocodile is a  fresh water species  and its habitat spread through out India. But the latter two species are facing serious survival problem. Salt water crocodile ones spread through out India, now shrink to few healthy habitats. Gharial also known as Ganges/chambal river crocodile is estimated to around 400 wild population as per latest census. Even strict conservation measures are taken to prevent the loss of this unique indian species, chances of survival is very tough as there are only breeding grounds available.

                  Encroachment and habitat destruction are the major reason for rapid reduction in crocodile numbers. Climate change also contributes to this account as the season and resulting flood completely washing new born crocodiles. Only few of them survives which may in future would end up their life in some fishing nets. Direct evidence of poaching nowadays reduced great extent but in the past it was the main reason in wiping out this magnificent creature many part including Kerala. Early in 20th century, salt water crocodiles were present in Kandal(mangroves) region in Kumarakom-Thanneermukkom area. Last known record corresponds to one shot from Thaneermukkom. Muggers were present in chinnar-pampar river systems now greatly reduced or may be locally extinct as they move downwards towards Koottar (Amravathy dam ).

Cattle Egret

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Exploring Periyar Tiger Reserve-vol 1

My fourth visit in the last 3 months to one of India's richest wildlife sanctuary both in terms of income and biodiversity was certainly one of the best i recently had.Periyar Tiger Reserve [PTR] is one of the best managed tiger reserve in the country and its action plan is famous 'Periyar Model 'which become the model for many other reserves in the country by involving local communities and tribes.Periyar Tiger Reserve known for the world as Thekkady[Teak plantation] attracts thousands of tourists and researchers across the globe for decades.Last year around 6.5 lakh tourists visited the place.There are many eco tourism programs there other than just boating.But if you want to explore its complete wilderness,you will need a 1000 years to spend there.

Traveling to PTR took only 3.5 hours from my home and i usually travel with my friend rony in my bike.This time i am with my old class mates from Bharananganam,Karthik.Sooraj & Ebin.We reached thekkady by 12' O clock and greeted by a gang of monkeys out there.Bonnet macaque [common monkey] which is found almost every tourist place india is first wildlife which catches our attention here.You can spot Nilgiri Langur which is ones locally extinct here in the upper branches of trees near the Information centre.During my visit in May,there was no sign of a Langurs in the tourism area,but once the monsoon came there are large numbers of such Langurs came to this area.You can spot sambar deer,barking deer and malabar giant squirrel while you traveling from the check post to the boat landing area.I just wanted to keep your eyes open and be a good listener,then you won't be disappointed.

We started our trek @ 12.45 after filling up the forms and putting trekking socks to prevent leach bite.It's always advisable to wear trekking socks during the monsoon.We crossed the periyar lake via mulachangadam[boat made of bamboo tied together] which is tied to a tree on other side.We are accompanied by forest watcher Aravindan.He was a nice person who knows the depth and breadth of the forest.As we walked through the semi-evergreen forest,we heard a large cry like sound.We walked towards the sound along the trek path,we saw a group of Great Pied Hornbills sitting in the upper branched of a big tree.Periyar harbors a good number of such endemic birds.As we proceed further we came across the skeleton and body parts of a baby tusker which was killed by Kolavilikomban,a lone tusker in musth .It's found that the rouge tusker was responsible for the death of about 7 female elephants and a baby tusker.We followed the trek path towards the Nellikkampathy .A huge monitor lizard was lying on the forest floor jumped out when it happened to see intruders in its territory.There were amazing bird sightings too.Scarlet minvet,white bellied treepie,malabar grey hornbill ,purple heron were the main sightings of the day other than numerous darters,kingfishers and commorants which can be seen on the old trees in the lake.We saw tiger scratch marks on several occasions which remind us the phantom of the forest.Aravindan told that he saw a full grown tiger from Nellikkampathy vayal about a months back. We saw tracks of Elephants and Gaurs throughout the trek.Luck was not there with us this time maybe because of wrong time chosen.Even though the sightings was poor i still have an affection on Periyar Tiger Reserve .I promised Aravindan that i will be soon back for a detailed trip,till then good bye!!

WILDLIFE PHOTOGRAPHS

1,Southern Flying lizard (Draco dussumieri)
2,Malabar Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica)
3,Indian Bison (Bos gaurus)
4,Great Commorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)

Western Ghats-Biodiversity!

The Western Ghats, extending along the west coast of India, covers an area of 180,000 square kilometers The Western Ghats comprises the major portion of the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka Hotspot, one of 34 global biodiversity hotspots for conservation and one of the two on the Indian subcontinent. The area is extraordinarily rich in biodiversity. Although the total area is less than 6 percent of the land area of India, the Western Ghats contains more than 30 percent of all plant, fish, herpetofauna, bird, and mammal species found in India. Like other hotspots, the Western Ghats has a high proportion of endemic species. The region also has a spectacular assemblage of large mammals and is home to several nationally significant wildlife sanctuaries, tiger reserves, and national parks
Biodiversity

In the Western Ghats, the Agasthyamalai Hills in the extreme south are believed to harbor the highest levels of plant diversity and endemism at the species level. Nearly 87 percent of the region’s flowering plants are found south of the Palghat Gap (37 percent being exclusive to this sub-region); these figures decrease to about 60 percent and 5 percent, respectively, in the Nilgiri Hills. There are more than 450 known bird species from the hotspot, of which about 35 are endemic.These includes Malabar grey hornbill,Wynadu laughing thrush,Grey headed bulbul,Malabar lark,Malabar barbet etc. The hotspot is home to about 140 mammal species,about which 20 are endemic to this region.Among the mammals there are species like Lion tailed macaque,Nilgirir langur,Nilgiri Tahr,Malabar civet,Nilgiri marten etc are made western ghats there own abode.This region is also home to about 260 species of reptiles of which 90 are endemic.130 species of about 175 of amphibians are unique to western ghats.Among endemics about 80 species are in the threatened category. A new amphibian species Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis recently discovered from kerala. Amphibian extinctions are also relatively well documented, with some 20 historically recorded extinctions. Nearly 140 of more than 190 species of strictly freshwater fishes are endemic to the hotspot.Chalakudy river which originates from anmalai hills supports the largest fish fauna in the country.

Conservation
Less than fifteen percent of the Western Ghats is protected in 20 national parks and 68 sanctuaries. Considering IUCN categories I-IV, which offer a higher level of protection, the figure drops to around 11percent, according to the World Database on Protected Areas. Thus, the protected area network is far from complete. One way of ensuring that the network of protected areas adequately conserves biodiversity is through the identification and conservation of “Key Biodiversity Areas” (KBAs). These are globally important sites for biodiversity conservation, defined by the presence of irreplaceable and threatened biodiversity: globally threatened species, restricted-range species, and species that concentrate in globally significant numbers. KBAs are biologically meaningful units that can be potentially managed for conservation, defined in a bottom-up, data driven process.
The identification of KBAs in the Western Ghats was initiated in 2003, coordinated locally by Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), and in collaboration with The Wildlife Conservation Society-India and the University of Agricultural Sciences in Bangalore. Building from preliminary data on Important Bird Areas, compiled by the Bombay Natural History Society, data on globally threatened species of mammals, birds, amphibians, plants, and to a lesser extent, reptiles and fish, were synthesized to identify and delineate 126 KBAs in the Western Ghats. These sites are high priorities for conservation action. KBAs in the Western Ghats will be refined as new and better data become available. Landscape-scale action, through biodiversity conservation corridors, will be necessary for wide ranging species such as the Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus, EN), tiger ( Panthera tigris, EN), Asiatic wild dog ( Cuon alpinus, EN), and greater spotted eagle ( Aquila clanga, VU).
Sources : Conservation International
WWF-India
ATREE

PTR Fact Sheet

Periyar Tiger Reserve

Introduction

Periyar Tiger Reserve lies in the Western Ghats in the Idukki District of the Indian state of Kerala. The terrain of the Reserve is undulating and the drainage is dendrite. The northeastern boundary of the Reserve is a ridge, which also forms boundary between the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu for 90 km.

The Periyar Lake, with an area of 26 sq. km., is the nucleus of the Tiger Reserve. Due to the diverticular shape, it caters to a much more extensive area of forest than would be possible if it was merely a compact lake.

The main prey base of the tiger is sambar. The other prey animals of the tiger are the Indian bison and wild boar. Cattle in the fringe area also forms an important prey base.

Conservation History

In the present day Reserve area, a dam was constructed across the Periyar river in 1895 to provide irrigation facilities in Tamil Nadu. The forest around the reservoir, the Periyar Lake, was declared as reserve forest known as Periyar Lake Reserve in 1899. This area was declared as Nellikkampetty Sanctuary (600 sq. km.) in 1934. The Sanctuary was extended to 777 sq. km. in 1950 and renamed as Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary. It was declared a Tiger Reserve in 1978. The Reserve is contiguous with Ranni extending up to Achancovil. The core area of the Reserve, 350 sq. km. was declared a National Park in 1982.

Archaeological Richness

Mangaladevi – Kannagi Temple falls on Northern boundary of the Reserve.

Forest Types

West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forests - 1 A/C4

West Coast Semi Evergreen Forests - 2 A/C2

Moist Deciduous Forest -3 A/C1a

Southern Montane Wet Grassland -11 A/C1/DS2

Eucalyptus Plantations

Main Flora

So far, 1,963 species of flowering plants belonging to 823 genera and 159 families have been documented by Dr. N. Sasidharan, Kerala Forest Research Institute and Kerala Forest Department (1998). Some important species are Hopea parviflora, Dipterocarpus indicus, Palaquium elliptium, Veteria indica and Myristica dactyloides.

Main Fauna

In Periyar Tiger Reserve 49 species of mammals, 265 species of birds, 36 species of reptiles, 12 species of amphibians, 35 species of fishes and 160 species of butterflies have been identified so far. Some important mammals are tiger, leopard, elephant, gaur, sambar, wild dog, barking deer, lion tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur and Nilgiri tahr.

Management

Habitat consolidation was done by acquiring three private estates (53.8 ha) during 1982. Effective fire-protection measures have promoted natural regeneration in grasslands. Planting of exotic species, such as eucalyptus in Periyar Tiger Reserve has been discontinued and action initiated to convert the present 55 sq. km. eucalyptus area into natural forest. The water sources have been judiciously developed. Some of the recent inputs have been enumerated below:

Some time ago, 50 newly recruited Forest Guards were posted in the Reserve after imparting them one-month training in Wildlife Management.

Through awareness/eco-development approach, the local people have been involved in patrolling, information sharing and arrest of criminals indulging in illicit activities.

Ten wireless stations are being maintained.

About sixty watchers are engaged to compensate the shortage of regular protection staff.

Frequent camping and combing operations with sufficient staff and watchers are being carried out.

Special combing operations to detect illegal ganja cultivation are being carried out.

Inspection Path Maintenance, vista-line clearance, roadside clearance and inter-state boundary clearance are being done for strengthening the perambulation.

Patrolling camps with trenches were constructed at Brandipara, Uppermanalar and Eravingalar.

The repair of existing camping sheds at Mavady and Mlappara with trenches was completed for ensuring staff presence at these key points.

Raincoats, gumboots and hunter shoes were provided to the field staff.

Protection/Patrolling Squads: In addition to regular staff, there is a special flying squad headed by a Range Officer for protection and patrolling.

Village Forest Protection Committees: Twenty-two Eco-development Committees constituted in the fringe area are helpful in forest protection.

Eco-development

India Eco-development Project is being implemented at the Reserve since 1997. The important components of the Project are as follows:

Village Eco-development Programme

Improved Protected Area Management

Impact monitoring and research, and

Environmental education and awareness campaigns

Effort is being made to minimize the biotic pressures resulting from factors such as grazing, firewood collection, non-timber forest produce collection, fishing and fire, by providing alternative income generation activities and bringing efficiency in utilization of natural resources. Under the India Eco-development Project, micro-plans have been prepared for the fringe villages.

Education and Awareness: Nature Camps are conducted in Periyar Tiger Reserve for students and members of various Nature Clubs.

Special Projects

· Studies of the flora of Periyar Tiger Reserve (Dr. N. Sasidharan, Kerala Forest Research Insitute, KFRI).

· Patterns and Processes of fish assemblages in Periyar Lake Valley system (Dr. L.K. Arun, KFRI)

· Ecology and behaviour of Gaur in Periyar Tiger Reserve (Dr. P.S. Easa, KFRI)

Control of Buffer: Buffer is part and parcel of the Reserve.

Constraints

Staff

· Of the total 102 sanctioned posts, 12 posts of forest guard are vacant.

· Most of the Range Officers/Foresters/Forest Guards are not trained in Wildlife Management.

· There is no separate staff for tourism/ interpretation.

Funds: Government of India releases the funds usually in the month of August. Funds are always insufficient for habitat improvement, fire protection etc.

Infrastructure: Inadequate

Grazing: No grazing in the core. About 2000 cattle graze in fringe area.

Fire: No fire incidence in the core because all forests in the Reserve are evergreen forests.

Occasional fire incidences in the buffer in grasslands during January to April.

Poaching of Fauna and Flora

Occasional poaching does occur in certain pockets of the Reserve. The 90 km. long inter-state boundary of the Reserve with Tamil Nadu forests and the highly undulating and inaccessible terrain makes protection rather difficult.

Poaching Statistics of Wildlife

Species Poached	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997
Elephant	-	-	-	1	-	1	-
Gaur	1	1	-	1	-	1	4
Sambar	-	1	-	2	-	3	-
Barking deer	-	-	1	-	-	1	-
Nilgiri langur	4	1	-	-	1	2	1
Otter	-	-	-	-	2	-	-
Wild boar	-	1	1	-	-	-	-

Human Population

There is no habitation inside the Reserve. On the Tamil Nadu fringe of the Reserve, there are 22 estates and on the Kerala side, there are 36 village areas (There is no village system, habitation is continuous all along the fringe area). Estimate of human population within 2 km. radius of the Reserve is 2.25 lakh.

Livestock Population: 2000 cattle graze in fringe area.

Criminals and Extremists: None

Highways

The existing Vandiperiyar-Moozhiyar-Kakki Road, which passes through the Reserve, is being handed over to the Public Works Department.

Diseases: Nil

Encroachment: Nil

Others

Overlapping Jurisdiction: Overlapping jurisdiction of Grassland Afforestation Division in part of the Reserve.

Dual Control Over Tourism: Kerala Tourism Development Corporation (KTDC) is running three luxury hotels and five boats as an independent agency.

Pilgrims at Sabarimala Ayyappan Temple: The Sabarimala Ayyappan Temple in Periyar Tiger Reserve attracts 5 million pilgrims during the 60-day duration of the pilgrimage. Problems associated with the pilgrimage are fuel wood collection from forest, garbage, degradation of forests, more demand for land, new constructions, and the threat of a proposed Sabari Rail in the near future, etc. There is no proper co-ordination between the Forest Department and Devaswam Board.

Electric Line and Electrocution of Wildlife: 8 elephants, 2 Nilgiri langurs and one flying squirrel have been electrocuted by the electric line supplying power to the Lake Palace run by KTDC.

Ganja Cultivation: Illegal ganja cultivation exists in the interior forests of the Reserve. The ganja cultivators clear prime forests in the deep interior by felling since the ganja plant is a strong light demander. As the crop takes six months for harvest, there is a prolonged stay of the labourers within the forests and associated damages, including poaching, takes place.

Pachakkanam Estate: The Estate mainly cultivates cardamom under the semi-evergreen forest canopy of huge trees. The total area of the estate is 208.576 ha. As the estate is on the boundary of the Periyar Tiger Reserve and the general vegetation is similar to that of the Reserve, wild animals visit the area frequently. Several experts have recommended the merger of the Estate with the Reserve.

Conflicts

Man-Animal

The human-wildlife conflict or interface conflict in Periyar Tiger Reserve is negligible.

Man-Forest

Fringe area people are dependent on the reserve for fuel wood, thatching grass and NTFP.

Action Points

· Re-organisation of the Ranges/ Sections/ Beat/ compartments etc., keeping in view the management problems.

· Integrating the Grassland Afforestation Division into the Periyar Tiger Reserve management and terminating the raw material supply contract to Hindustan Newsprint Ltd.

· Full control over tourism by the Forest Department. Sufficient funds for Tourism activities. Recycling the revenue generated from tourism in the Tiger Reserve itself for developmental activities.

· Implementation of wildlife oriented management system in the ecological zone of Periyar Tiger Reserve, at least in areas adjoining PTR (both in Kerala and Tamil Nadu).

· Sufficient fund for habitat improvement, protection etc.

· Compulsory training in wildlife management and eco-development at all levels of the staff.

· Posting of separate and sufficient staff for tourism/education and interpretation.

· Project allowance/incentives/ awards for staff at all levels.

· Preparation of master plan for Sabarimala.

· Stopping on going construction at Sabarimala.

· Creating facilities for pilgrim outside the Reserve.

· Local peoples’ participation in the management of Sabrimala.

· Garbage disposal system at Sabarimala.

· Making all electric lines in the Reserve underground.

· The Proposed Meghamalai Wildlife Sanctuary of Tamil Nadu, adjacent to Periyar should be notified immediately.

Tourism

Year wise Tourists

Year	Indian	Foreigners	Total
1990-91	2,53,118	11,425	2,64,543
1991-92	2,17,898	20,149	2,38,047
1992-93	2,33,896	19,443	2,53,330
1993-94	1,70,365	7,315	1,77,680
1994-95	1,85,182	11,073	1,96,255
1995-96	2,52,473	9,911	2,62,384
1996-97	2,77,278	10,145	2,87,423

Infrastructure and Facilities

Six dormitories are available for nature awareness campaigns and visitors. The department runs six boats for tourists.

General Information

Area: 777 sq. km.

Core: 350 sq. km.

Buffer: 427 sq. km.

Longitude: 76°57’ and 77°25’ E

Latitude: 9°16’ and 9°36’ N

Altitude: 100m. to 2016 m. above msl.

Rainfall: 2500 mm.

Temperature: Minimum: 15°C

Maximum: 31°C

Seasons:

Monsoon: Southwest and Northeast monsoon with maximum rainfall in July and minimum in January.

Summer: April-May

Winter: December-January

Census

Population Estimates

Animal	1978	1987	1988	1989	1991	1993*	1995	1996*
Bonnet macaque	10 troops	50	65	32	-	48	39	30
Liontailed macaque	11 troops	200	235	182	-	90
Nilgiri langur	170 troops	300	839	765	-	1530
Sambar	452	490	560	580	-	10.37 D
Gaur	100	350	378	412	-	1.59 D
Tiger	34	45	45	46	46	33
Leopard	14 packs	26	27	21	-	7 D
Wild dog	49 packs	55	64	62	-	216.6 D/E
Elephant	588	950	1020	980	-	615
Wild gaur	500	1100	1300	1290	-	27.14 D
Barking deer						30
Mouse deer						200 D/E
Malabar giant squirrel						6.75 D
Indian porcupine						417.5 D/E
Small Indian civet						84.29 D/E
Common palm civet						218.11 D/E
Sloth bear						284.68 DS

Note

1. Just a figure indicates the Total Number

2. D - Density/sq. km.

3. D/E - Density of indirect evidence/sq. km.

4. DS - Density of scat/sq. km.

5. DO - Direct observation per sq. km.

6. 93* - The census was held from 30/4 to 3-5-93 with public involvement and

was organised and analysed by Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi

7. 96* - The census was held from 6th to 10^th December 1996 with public involvement and was organised by Park Authorities. Many of the pugmarks could not be taken due to a freak cyclone that had partially obliterated them.